Evaluation

The qualitative research project undertaken was to assess whether, and to what extent, society is being manipulated and ordered to behave in an expected manner by the very existence of objects found in everyday society.

The issues of validity and reliability, within the project, were not really a cause for concern, due mainly to the fact that images of people were not the focus of the project and therefore there was little room for manipulation of the subject matter, and the issue of the photographer directly influencing the subject did not arise. One photograph, however, Footsteps in the snow (opposite direction), taken from two differing viewpoints, did highlight the fact that manipulation of the source was possible, albeit accidentally in the instance being discussed. This meant that photographs taken after this point in time were carefully considered, where the framing of the object was concerned, in order not to have any substantial affect on the validity and therefore reliability of the image captured.

Validity and reliability were still an issue, because the selection process for the project, as a whole, meant taking certain elements from the cultural surround and this meant, by default, that other culturally important elements had to be excluded, mainly because the size of the project had to be kept to a minimal photographic collection. The selection process itself was based on objects that formed the larger part of signs within the culture being recorded, but not necessarily in the form of sign that society considers to be a sign, but in the form of objects which have a purpose of instructing society in some manner. The selection process also had to take into account what could be photographed; this became an issue where the photograph entitled Ordering the queue was concerned because this object is normally found in banks and post offices, both of which were off-limits due to security reasons, thus leaving only one possible source for the photograph, which is seen in the image mentioned.

Fortunately, it was possible to obtain a photograph of each of the elements that were selected for the project, all of which were selected by the process of seeking out any and every object that presented itself as a form of instruction; considering the photographs from a reflexive viewpoint, this seemed the wiser way in which to select subject matter for the project and did not appear to have any substantially detrimental affect to the overall project. It was also necessary to be vigilant during the analysing stage of the photographic content, because it was easy to overlook elements that did not readily present themselves in the images captured; this meant that the content analysis of the photographs also took on a semiotic approach as well, in order to get to the true meaning behind what was being photographed and not only to the stage of what society had been taught concerning the objects in the images. This in itself presented some interesting findings concerning the objects photographed and how society has been taught to view something which may have a different purpose to the one they are aware of.

Some of the areas which had little to no effect on the project are those of authenticity and illusion of the subject matter as it is framed for photography, apart from in the one instance already mentioned; similarly, the relationship of time does not really present itself as an issue in this particular study, although within several days of one of the photographs being taken, alterations were being made to the original subject matter by the Council, which means that in a sense the relationship of time should be taken into account when viewing the cultural content matter in the photographs presented, because time has already altered at least one of the sources and the image captured is no longer necessarily a true reflection of the object, although it still remains an accurate reflection of the cultural marker at that point in time.

It could be considered that the photographs merely represent cultural markers within society, and that they cannot be viewed in the same manner as an image of an individual whereby social inequities and ideologies are presented within captured images; however, there is an underlying emphasis on both of these aspects because ultimately it was society that placed the objects and that uses them for the control of the whole of society. In this manner, the objects within the photographs act in the same way as individuals within society, and therefore the issues and aspects of inequity and ideology are presented within the cultural use of the objects photographed. There are clear sources of control inherent in many of the images, and in images where no source of control exists, there appears to be an underlying ideology being voluntarily adhered to, as seen in the Footsteps in the snow (opposite direction) image.

Even though the photographic content is taken in isolation in many of the images, they are understood by society in isolation anyway, so this has not been considered a cause for concern and has not been deemed to affect the results in any way. All of the images can indeed be considered to be copies of reality, which may eventually take on the aspect of ‘myth’ if viewed in isolation to the culture itself, but this is highly improbable, because even without the narrative context, the photographs still maintain a degree of self-explanatory content which is enough, in most instances, to impart the knowledge required to form a substantially sound conclusion about the object within any given image; the narrative context merely allows the viewer of the photograph to explore the meaning, of the image presented, in more depth.

Although this is a very limited study, in terms of its scale, it has proven that society and individuals are ‘ordered’ by the very objects found around them in everyday life, but it has also shown that society itself maintains its structures and orderly society by the very use of these objects. On the whole, this has been a successful project which has explored the many ways, albeit subtle on occasion, in which society is ordered, in an attempt to maintain order where chaos might otherwise ensue.

Critical essay task B

Comment on Validity and Reliability in visual methods and on the Journalistic Image as Visual Sociology.


Validity and reliability in visual methods can be a cause for concern as the possibility of manipulation exists. Manipulation can be seen in the choice of images gathered which may be deliberately selected in order to give a preconceived view of the subject matter. In addition, images can also be photographed deliberately in a way that puts the subject within the image in either a positive or negative light, depending on whether the photographer wishes to depict one aspect or the other. This would mean that both the validity of the images and the reliability of their authenticity would be brought into question. If the selection of images within a visually-based study were selected for their merit and context then this would, by default, bring into question the validity of the study because it would no longer be an accurate measure of the item it was initially intended to measure, which would also bring into question the reliability of the study as well because reliability concerns the extent to which any form of study is valid. By deliberately choosing to frame a chosen aspect, as in the example above, this excludes all other possibilities which may well exist within the subject matter being studied and does not therefore allow for an overall accurate reflection of the subject as depicted within the visual data gathered, which would make it both invalid and certainly unreliable. Validity of a visual image is also affected by the process of external validity whereby the viewer is able to interpret the image correctly and not via a preconceived view which then also allows for misinterpretation which will diminish the validity of the image. (Prosser 1998).

Journalistic images need to be seen in context by the viewer in order to be interpreted correctly. Very often the image that the journalist presents to the viewer is surrounded by text which gives some context to the image. Where the image stands alone and there is no text to allow for its correct interpretation, it then falls to the reader/viewer of the image to be able to place the image within its correct social context by means of the use of prior learned knowledge of the subject matter. An image can only be interpreted correctly if prior knowledge of the subject is already known to the viewer, and therefore that is the only way in which any image can function at the level of visual sociology; the reader has to posses a sociological understanding of all the elements which combine to make the image, in order that visual sociology can be considered accurate to any degree, without this sociological understanding the probability of incorrect interpretation of the sociological facts being presented within a journalistic image may well occur. Sociological analysis of the journalistic image comprises of their evidentiary value, and their sociological meaning; both of these elements are more likely to be understood immediately and within their proper context if the viewer’s background knowledge of the subject is both up-to-date and accurate, otherwise the image could be considered not to have accurate sociological value at all. The knowledge of the subject and the correct interpretation and therefore understanding of the journalistic image is what gives a journalistic image its validity in the field of visual sociology. (Becker 1998: 92-94).


List of References:

Becker, H. S. (1998) ‘Visual sociology, documentary photography, and photojournalism: it’s (almost) all a matter of context.’ In Image-based research: a sourcebook for qualitative researchers. ed. by Prosser, J. London: Routledge: 84-96

Prosser, J. (ed.) (1998) Image-based research: a sourcebook for qualitative researchers. London: Routledge

Order after death.

The graveyard, past and present. The graveyard scene here shows how people are processed after death. The fact that these are obviously old gravestones indicates that the manner in which this practice has been carried out has not altered over the centuries. It could be considered that the graves are lined in rows purely to allow for people visiting the graves to be able to access the graves easier, or it could be so that any limited space is used to its fullest advantage. Other forces in society are at work here, however, because the exact location of burial is not generally chosen by either the deceased or by the deceased’s friends or family members. The local council has the final say as to where a deceased person is put to rest, which indicates that even the deceased are still being controlled by people in authority, and that they have no option but to comply with said request; it could be considered to be the ultimate proof of control or shepherding of the people by those with more authority.

The multiple functions of the chair.

Rows of chairs.



Row of chairs.

The chair, although considered as being an item on which to sit, has a variety of functions. Depending on how chairs are arranged, and in which setting they are placed, dictates their usage. The top photograph here, where the chairs are lined in row upon row in a cathedral show that they are not to be used for the purpose of leisure; they are all facing one direction, and are all relatively closely placed in relation to one another, with no room to stretch the legs for comfort. The chairs are also of a basic structure, wooden and with woven seats making them robust whilst at the same time depicting that they are intended for lots of use. The fact that they face forwards, in the manner that they do, allows the assumption to be drawn that the people, or group of people, using the chairs will be expected to pay attention to someone, or something at the front, and to sit still. The chairs in the photograph below that one, are lined up, and once again as with the chairs in the cathedral they are not connected to one another indicating that they can be moved; but the establishments both have enough authority over the people using the chairs that they will not be moved by default of this authoritarian power that the establishments enforce just by being the voice of authority within each of the two establishments, and not necessarily by word of mouth or any given order. The chairs in the second picture are also in a row, but placed up against a wall, and they also allow for leg-room so that people can relax on them; there is also no focal point ahead of them so that reinforces the idea of the purpose of the chairs, as does the soft comfortable seat and back of each chair.

Recycling containers.

Recycling.

Three separate recycling containers can be seen in this photograph; one for bottles, one for cans, and one for clothing. The size of the containers shows the community how much use they are expected to receive. Each one dictates that only a certain item is placed in to it, depending on its structure and colour, or on written or pictorial information on the container itself. The fact that the slots in which to place the recyclable items are found high up on the containers tends to indicate that they are targeted at the adult population and not at children; adults are being instructed to place items within the containers instead of placing them in their normal weekly bin collection. This shows a certain modicum of responsibility, because it is targeted at adults, and is also a manner in which to persuade people to use recycling areas in order to show others within the community that they are being responsible; this then becomes a self-perpetuating cycle, with control going on at a level that people may not be aware of, nor even be concerned about. Grouping containers together convinces people to consider recycling more than just one selected item from their rubbish, and is a way in which to ensure that more recycling goes on.

Follow the signs.

Male.



Female.



Disabled. This was the only available sign of this nature, but a flash could not be used due to flashback which is why it is slightly darker than it would have been had a similar sign been available for photographing but set in a different location where there was more natural light to assist the shot.



Disabled/male.

Disabled/female.

None of the five signs above indicate that the doors upon which they are found lead to toilet areas. Society has been taught, through intergenerational transmission, that each of these signs mean there is a toilet in the vicinity behind the door upon which the sign/symbol is found. The signs themselves are interesting, because they denote (from the top): male, female, disabled, disabled/female, disabled/male. However, this in itself is a problem, there is nothing to suggest that the ‘male’ sign is wearing trousers, or indeed clothing at all; likewise the ‘female’ sign suggests a dress or skirt, but there is nothing in society that prohibits a male wearing a skirt or dress, and men in many parts of the United Kingdom can be seen wearing the traditional dress in the form of a kilt, which to all intents and purposes when silhouetted would resemble the ‘female’ sign. The use of unisex clothing makes it unascertainable as to which sign is aimed at which gender, and the only thing which allows for people, from the very young to the elderly, to comprehend which each sign dictates, is the socialisation process within any given community. The ‘disabled’ sign, also has inherent problems, since it does not depict that only people in wheelchairs, which is the symbolism of the sign, are permitted to use the toilets found there, in fact it is for the disabled as a whole. The power that the signs emit is seen in the fact that an able-bodied person will seldom be seen entering a predominantly ‘disabled’ toilet facility but will be seen to go looking for the appropriate toilet to their gender, and one that has been set aside for the able-bodied. The last two signs, ‘disabled/male’ and ‘disabled/female’ also present their own problems since they do not indicate males and all disabled people, and females and all disabled people, respectively, but rather they are gender specific signs indicating that a toilet facility for the disabled can also be found at that location; this once again is a meaning that is only learnt through socialisation from a very young age. Genders can be seen to be the issue here, with the two genders being directed to using separate toilet facilities within any given building. One toilet is much the same as another but it is unlikely that anybody within society will break the cardinal rule by using a toilet facility specifically meant for the opposite gender. So, these signs show how authority and control of people is put in to place and followed through the learning process of socialisation, even though a toilet is a toilet, with the exception of the urinal, and could equally be used by either gender.

Gendered toilets.

The urinal, the male domain. [A male member of the Orkney College staff, who wishes to remain anonymous, was kind enough to take this necessary photograph for me]




Female/unisex toilet.




Disabled/unisex toilet.

Are toilets gender-specific? The urinal is most definitely an item made specifically with the male in mind. The purpose of which is presumably ease and speed of usage, because private households do not have urinals in them, in fact they are only to be found within public toilet facilities. Again, as with the signs on toilet doors, this is a process of socialisation which a male child must be introduced to in order to understand exactly what the purpose of the object is. This is the only toilet facility which is gender-specific, and yet there is no reason to have a gender-specific toilet because males are capable of using the ‘unisex’ toilet which they do for the majority of the day. The female/unisex toilet in the second and third photograph, found within both male and female toilet facilities can be used by both genders. The last photograph shows a toilet facility which is not only aimed at both genders but also at the disabled. The blue container which is used for the disposal of sanitary towels is very gender-specific, and once again something which is learnt through the process of intergenerational transmission. Each toilet facility shown indicates that at some level toilets can be used by both genders even if they are found within areas that have been specifically set aside for the use of a sole gender, however, the urinal is not a unisex item, and is therefore aimed solely at the male gender. Authorities and establishments ensure that the genders remain separate and make use of the facilities that have been set in place specifically for their own gender, by the use of door signs which direct the separate genders to a specific location, and further, by the installation of the urinal which can by default not be used by the female gender. The disabled are further controlled, in that they can only make use of a limited number of toilet facilities that they will not necessarily find at the same location as toilets for the able-bodied, which means that they have to go looking for a toilet that has been adapted specifically with them in mind; in a way, it could be considered that the disabled are being segregated to a greater degree, in this sense, than the segregation found between the male and female in this instance.

Personal choice or authority?

Multiple sinks.

This photograph of a row of sinks brings up some interesting points. It has already been established, in a photograph above, that self-contained cubicles that have both a toilet and a sink within them exist. The three sinks correspond directly to the number of toilets within the toilet area where the photograph was taken. It could be to ensure that people do not remain in the cubicle any longer than absolutely necessary and therefore it is a way in which to control the speed of people that are using the facilities, thus ensuring that there is a constant flow with nobody hindering the access of the next user. The point, however, this is unhygienic, because users of the toilets must open the toilet cubicle door, before being able to make use of both the soap container and then the tap facility. It can be ascertained, therefore, that germs will be found on every toilet cubicle door handle. So, is hygiene indeed the purpose behind the row of sinks, each of which could equally have been installed next to each toilet and have been self-contained facilities; or is the purpose merely to make certain that nobody has to wait longer than absolutely necessary for a toilet to become vacant, whenever there is high demand? Having sinks in a row outside the actual toilet cubicle could be considered as a manner in which an authority is ensuring that the toilet users take appropriate measures where hygiene is concerned. By placing the sinks on the outside of the cubicles, however, the authority of an establishment is in fact negating the concept of personal hygiene because germs have already been spread before the user even gets to the sink area. There is also the element of socialisation involved here, making the use of the sinks almost compulsory, whereas if the sinks were located within the cubicles there would not exist any external pressure to use the sink and therefore people may not necessarily conform with the accepted practice of washing their hands after using a toilet. There is a certain amount of authority inherent in placing the sinks outside of the toilet cubicles, and one that is reinforced by the fact that all toilets, that I have so far seen, have a sink/toilet ratio of 1:1, indicating that they could just as easily have been located side by side in the toilet cubicle thus ensuring higher hygiene levels, whilst simultaneously relinquishing any power of control over the user.

Push/Pull

Push to enter through door.

Internal door.

Pull door.

Fire Door

The fire door.

The internal door, seen in the previous two postings, is meant for heavy usage because it has a self-closing mechanism at the top of the door. Usage of the door is also made easier because there is no handle on one side which indicates it should be pushed when being approached from that side; additionally there is a decent sized pane of glass which ensures that people do not open the door in someone else’s face. The middle photo also shows that the door can be widened in order to allow access for large items that will not go through the normal-sized door-opening; the bolts at the top and bottom of the door indicate that those with authority within the establishment are permitted to open the doors wider as and when required, and for the most part only the single normal sized door will be needed to cope with human traffic throughout the day. Aside from the bolts, there is no authority that comes in to play with the internal door, because there are no locks and so forth. In the last photograph above, the ‘Fire Door’, authority and control over the use of the door are extremely evident. Instructions are given on how to go about opening the door; this in itself is an unusual feature because most doors do not have instructions explaining how they open. The fire door is the one door which is not permitted to be opened and used in the same manner as a regular internal or external door. This controlling feature in society is put in place from the age of childhood, and is so effective that even when a fire drill/alarm is sounded many will not use the fire door for the purpose for which it is intended. The authoritarian control over the use of the fire door is so deeply ingrained in to people’s psyche that the original thought pattern has to be overwritten by seeing the door being used in order for people to understand that the fire door may indeed be used during a fire drill; this odd phenomenon has been personally witnessed. The degree of control that exists, in relation to when the fire door can be used and to who is permitted to use it, could be considered a serious safety issue in itself; but since fire doors are seldom used and are also considered out of bounds for everyday usage, it stands to reason that the original ‘rules’ of not being permitted to use a fire door for access will remain as the voice of authority instructing people to find an alternative exit, possibly even during a fire, because in a sense the doors themselves become ‘invisible’ due to them not generally being considered in the same light that other doors are, as points of access in to and out of buildings.

More ways in which society is shepherded and ordered.

The following additional photos portray how society is seemingly ordered by figures in authority, figures found in varying hierarchies of authority. Some of the familiar and seemingly ordinary items to be found in society will be examined, and looked at from a different point of view than what is generally considered to be the more accepted view, and therefore function, of the item in question.

Ordered society

This photo shows the degree of order around a housing estate; the garages are all in a row; the cars are neatly parked between the lines in the parking area; the houses are all uniform, going either horizontally or vertically along the horizon; and boundary walls stretch as far as the eye can see. Society is structured to such an extent that houses are seldom found in random formations but rather in linear form, and generally situated in areas that are designated specifically for housing areas. Self-contained mini-societies are found within these areas and they form part of the whole but are also removed from the bigger picture to a certain degree; however, they still follow the rules and regulations that have been set in place by the hegemonic societal structure.

Creels

This picture of stacked creels says something of the person that stacked them, and about the society in which they find themselves. The creels are neatly stacked, possibly for the reason of optimising the space, but maybe also in order to be able to count them more effectively. The fact that the creels are stacked so neatly on the ground is unusual because they will still need to be transferred to a vehicle before they can be taken to the place of usage, in which case the neat stacking is irrelevant, since they will be moved once more before they can be utilised. This area of ground obviously belongs to a fisherman/fisherwoman and is a place for storage of items that are not currently in use. The open area suggests that crime is not a problem, because the creels are not fenced off to the general public.

Post box

Normal red letterbox style, either free-standing or set in to a wall, as seen here.



Although this letterbox shape opening in the wall has the words 'posting box' on it, society normally views a small rectangular slit/hole as a place in which to put mail. The fact that this one has the words on it is even more confounding because it is situated on the outside of a post office and has a stamp machine next to it. This could be ordering people to place their items within the post box should they have the correct postage already placed on the item, and thereby encouraging people not to enter the post office unless absolutely essential; or ensuring they do not bring non-essential items in for processing by the staff, thereby also cutting down the workload that the staff need to deal with. It is noted that the letter box area is somewhat larger than the average red letter box which is found either free-standing or sunk flush in to a wall in the streets around neighbourhoods.

Cycle route

These three barriers are normal of areas that are designed to slow people down. This refers to both pedestrians and to cyclists; this could be because the route adjoins a pavement, as seen at front/bottom of photo, however, there is an adjoining section further along the route, but there are no such barriers to be found there; so it could in fact be indicative of a cycle/pedestrian route. One dividing solid white line is all that 'orders' cyclists and pedestrians to remain on their designated side of the route; with the white symbol at either end of the route indicating which side they are in fact supposed to adhere to. This is not like a normal road system where the motorist drives on the left-hand side, because depending on the direction the cyclist takes the cyclist will end up cycling on the right-hand side of the route. Therefore, cyclists must adhere to a different form of 'order' whilst on cycle routes than they would normally adhere to whilst on the road.

Bike spaces

Low-level cycle rack.



Why are lined up, bent metal structures considered to be bike racks? In all areas where there are metal structures similar to the above, whether they are at ground level or of a decent height as in the photo, they are normally considered to be places to store a pushbike. There are no instructions to indicate that these bent metal rods are for the purpose of cycle storage/parking, but it is a commonly accepted thing in society that where metal structures of this nature are found lined up in a row, they are for the sole usage of the cyclist. The cyclist is directed toward placing their cycle by these structures, even though there is no reason that they need to, and in theory no law to make them comply with this unwritten rule, but where there are cycle racks, then generally speaking cyclists will comply by making use of the structures; even though the structures may not be suitable for the cycle in question.

Barriers

Barrier style indicates something specific; in this photo these are temporary barriers, so they are moveable items. The red and white style of broken paint-work is seen on items that suggest danger ahead, and where caution is needed. It may relate to the way in which society is taught to see the colour red as a danger or stop signal, or it may also be for reasons of visibility. The barriers are high enough to indicate that they should not be climbed, however, they are not solid and they do allow for people to get between the top and bottom should they so choose, although this is never deemed proper in society, and people will normally only ever comply by walking around the area; the white arrow on the blue circular background is a road sign but it is directed to the attention of pedestrians, since it is the pedestrian who is being directed to walk around, and not therefore meant for the purpose of instructing a motorist. In a way, it could be argued that the arrow sign is both irrelevant and superfluous, because the barrier makes it obvious that a pedestrian must walk around, in which case authority is being enforced here; and society is being informed as to what to do, even though common sense will dictate that they would have gone around the barriers anyway.

Traffic circle

Why do the cars go around a flat circle in the road? This vehicle can be clearly seen to have just gone around the traffic circle because the front tyres are still in the cornering mode. Vehicles will go to great lengths to miss crossing the circle even with their back tyres, this also includes large trucks. Trucks will approach very close to the pavement in order to 'go around' the white, very slightly raised circle, even when there are no other vehicles anywhere in sight. This could have been a reaction to having someone crouched, taking a photograph, as the vehicles went by, but this is an unlikely scenario. It is more likely that the larger roundabouts that exist elsewhere, have conditioned motorists to go around the item above; although this would not apply to people that have never driven anywhere but on the Orkney Mainland, so it can only be assumed that it is considered bad manners, or bad driving, if a driver in fact does refuse to go around the circle and instead decides to drive straight over it. This is a point of authoritarian control, where the rules of the Highway Code are adhered to by all motorists; the code is adhered to even when no other traffic is present, much in the same way as using an indicator when there is no other person/vehicle around to inform of a driver's intended action. The rules are so deeply ingrained in to the subconscious of the road user, that they are followed automatically and without necessary forethought.

Crossing point

The zebra crossing. The dotted white lines on the road indicate to the motorist exactly how close they may be permitted to stop in relation to the crossing itself. A safer place to cross the road, and a place where pedestrians are expected to be crossing the road. This also functions at another level; a crossing is the one place on a road where pedestrians know that they will be given right of way, and that traffic will stop if a pedestrian is seen stood at the side of the road. Although this may seem a reasonable and obvious statement, if a pedestrian stands at the side of a road, anywhere else, where there is no crossing point, they may stand there all day and still never be given the opportunity to cross the road. So, a pedestrian crossing serves as instructing politeness in to society, where politeness might not otherwise exist; it is also considered bad manners to not stop and give way to a waiting pedestrian, so there is also a certain degree of behavioural patterning being instilled in to society by the very use of areas that order society to behave in a certain manner, and to 'willingly' comply with the status quo. This is an unusual behaviour pattern, because it is up to both parties involved, both motorist and pedestrian, to stop at this point; a pedestrian will stop here and wait until a driver stops, only then will the pedestrian attempt to cross, even if the road is not overly busy or dangerous. Both parties are showing polite behavioural patterning that allows for society to run smoothly in much the same way that the crossing will run smoothly if these patterns of behaviour continue to exist and be adhered to by all people involved.

Safety barriers

This barrier is not there in order to keep the cars away from the pedestrians, neither is it there in order to slow the pedestrian down as they approach the kerb and the road. The barrier is solid and extends around the corner; it is also of a decent height and structure that does not permit for it to be climbed over or crawled under. Unlike such solid structures that are found at the ends of cycle routes which ensure that pedestrians/cyclists slow down in order to navigate them before coming the road which is on the other side of the deliberately placed barriers, normally 3, this barrier continues a good distance around the corner on either side, indicating that pedestrians have to walk to the end of the barrier in order to cross the road, even when there is no traffic. This is a safety issue, but is not planned just to prevent a pedestrian that is in a hurry; it is planned to effectively determine where the Council, of the area, designates that a pedestrian may be permitted to cross the road; and in effect is also for the benefit of the driver, not just the pedestrian as would initially be thought. The barrier ensures the pedestrian cannot cross at any point that the barrier cuts off, and ensures that drivers have a decent distance for breaking should the need arise.

Pay here

A payment machine in a car park. This is not necessarily an instruction to pay for the privilege of parking within the car park, although at the same time it is exactly that. There is no-one to monitor whether a motorist is paying once they have parked their vehicle. Payment is very much left at the discretion of the motorist; this is instilling a form of compulsory honesty in to society, in order that society can actually exist. It is true that traffic wardens patrol the areas, but it is impossible for them to be in all car parks at the same time, and leaving the 'choice' of whether to pay for a ticket, to the driver, is at a base level ordering society to act and behave in an honest and responsible manner; but at the same time they are not being forced to act in a certain manner, since there is no-one around to ensure that they do so. Neither is this ticket machine situated at the entrance of the car park, in fact it is partially obscured by the plant growth around it, which means that honest citizens have to go and search the machine out in order to pay for their stay; this is also interesting, because motorists do go and find the machine and pay for their stay, which means they partially go out of their way in order to comply with this unenforced concept of paying for their stay.

Parking spaces

Allotting a delineated space for each vehicle. Wherever there exist rectangular lined forms on the ground, whether they are solid white lines, or broken white lines as above, they are deemed by society as places to park vehicles. Where these spaces are also seen on the side of roads, this is also the case. Each vehicle is parked in one designated area, and generally parked very centrally within that space. This instructs society that the space outside of their box is not for them to infringe on with their vehicle; in the photo above it can be clearly seen that motorists cannot, or should not, use the tarmac area outside of the lighter coloured area, which has obviously been designated for parking, whereas the outer area has not. Seldom does a driver just place a car in a parking space, but more often are they very careful to ensure that they centrally line the vehicle up, by reversing and pulling in again if necessary, in order to leave adequate space for the next vehicle. However, there is no-one to oversee this process, and it is one of society's unwritten rules of conduct and behaviour that motorists automatically comply with. In this instance it is the supermarket, in which the car park is found, that is enforcing its authority on its customers, and ensuring that they act in a polite and social manner to each other even before they enter the store; this indicates that a degree of structured behaviour is expected from the potential customers even before they enter the store in order to make any transactions.

Ordered by lines

Here is an interesting view of a car park. The solid white lines, as in the photo above, are indicative of where vehicles should be placed. The white lines in this photo have a small cross bar at the end showing where vehicles should not extend beyond. All cars in this park have complied and are parked between the lines, centrally as well. But the very interesting point occurs when the pedestrians are taken in to account. The pedestrians are not walking outside of the lines, in fact they are walking directly across the lines, bisecting them to a degree, and are obviously not headed towards any parked car; a car would never be seen bisecting white lines/parking spaces within a car park. This proves that the white lines are specifically aimed at motorists, and that they have no meaning for the pedestrian since they are not avoiding walking in areas designated for vehicles, and crossing these areas in a manner that a motorist would never consider. The lines are for the ordering of the motorist, and hold no meaning to any other person in society, unless they happen to be driving at the time, in which case they will automatically obey the lines marked out on the ground.

A choice

Solid rail near the ramp but also allocating handrail usage near the steps. This photo indicates that the ramp is for wheelchair users, people with prams, walking difficulties, and so forth. The steps could have been eradicated but have been kept, in order to give people the choice, and the steps take up a larger ground space than the ramp, which has obviously been put in to comply with disability laws and so forth; this can be ascertained by the fact that the entrance up to the steps is only as wide as the ramp itself, but where the steps occur the steps cover a wider entrance point than the ramp. Half of the ground space has effectively been removed in order to allocate the ramp; but the steps have also been left, which in itself is an enigma, since able-bodied and disabled can both use a ramp, therefore there is no need for the steps. Where steps and ramps are found, in unison, an able-bodied person, even if there is no-one else about, will tend to use the steps, indicating that society avoids using structures that in theory have been put in place for the use of other people, i.e. disabled. This is a very common occurrence and a subtle way in which society is primed to behave.

Steps and ramp

Handrail only near the steps; this set-up of a ramp and steps is favouring the walker that has no problems. It can be considered that the ramp is not meant for people with walking difficulties, but rather, either for a wheelchair user or for a parent with a pram, mainly because there is no handrail alongside the ramp. The handrail up the steps is a solid structure which is obviously designed for support, and will take a reasonable amount of pressure being put upon it, but the same facility does not exist for those needing to use the ramp; this is purely a compliance with the law, making certain that a ramp is available for people that require it. Disabled, and people with pushchairs, may consider that the establishment in question have done this for their benefit, whereas in reality it appears that it is in fact for the benefit of the establishment itself.

Choice of entrance

Steps, ramp, and handrails on both; here there is a choice of entrance that people may take. Both entrance possibilities have been allocated with substantially set handrails. The one to the right is obviously designed for disabled, and people with pushchairs and so forth; basically for anyone where the steps will become an issue. The steps are for those that can navigate them without a problem. But, here again, society is being shepherded in to different categories; those that are unable to use the steps have to approach the building from the side-on, and those that have no problems with the steps are permitted to approach the door head-on. This may seem a relatively obvious statement, but there is ample room for the placement of a ramp that allows for everyone to enter the building from the front, and not have to be restricted to walking alongside the building in a differently designated area. Basically, this structure ensures a form of division of space exists between the able-bodied and those that are not capable of using the steps for whatever reason makes it cumbersome for them to do so. Segregation of a form is going on in this instance.

Wide steps

Handrails galore; this wide step leads to the doors of a library. The width permits for people not to have to vie for space when wishing to enter the building whilst seeing someone exiting the building at the same time. There really is no reason for such a wide step set-up and no need for a handrail in the middle, unless the middle rail is attempting to act as a divider as found on the public highway, and therefore acting as a flow for human traffic in a similar way to that found on roads where vehicles are concerned. The rails are substantial indicating that they are for repeated usage and by a multitude of people; it is also possible that the width of the step in the design feature itself, which would allow for more people to use it simultaneously, was deliberately employed as a means of portraying the importance of the building in relation to how many people in society will make use of it; but not necessarily all at the same time, so these steps appear somewhat out of place. The edge of the steps has been strategically marked by the placing of circular inlays, so that the edge of the wide steps cannot be easily misjudged when entering or leaving the premises.

Closed

Thick wood structures bar the way. This is seen by society as a place that is permanently closed, or at least on a long-term temporary basis. The two indicators of this are the thick wooden beams that bar any attempt at access, which have also been firmly wedged up to the wall on either side of the door, as can be seen; the other indicator is the smeared-out glass panes in the door, which do not permit people to gaze through in order to see what is happening inside. The double doors with no handle on the outside indicate a store that is used by a lot of people, and a store that makes ease of access of prime importance for the customer. The bottom of the doors also allow the viewer to note that they expect to have a good deal of wear and tear, because the bottom of the door is reinforced with metal coverings to afford a degree of protection from feet that might otherwise damage the doors through repeated knocks.

Extended height on a fence

Extending the security in an upward direction, and showing history at the same time. The wall was initially a lower stone structure, one that allowed for a degree of privacy in the form of a boundary marker; it could easily have been climbed and access gained to the premises. The heightening of the fence shows two things about society; firstly, it indicates that the premises now serve a very different function, or function in a very different socially constructed arena, than the previous low stone wall; and secondly, it indicates that society values the remnants from the past because it was not just removed and replaced with the newer structure. The old wall and the new higher fence, act in unison; they are there now for the sole purpose of maintaining that absolutely nobody can gain access via the outer wall/fence area, but that a person must gain access through a specified designated entrance. Whatever is inside the boundary is informing those on the outside that they are not permitted to be a part of what is occurring on the other side, and that they are relegated to the position of Other within the same society.

Exit/ no way in

No entry allowed. This is the exit point for people that are within the library area of the Kirkwall Library. The barrier is situated about hip height for an adult, and is a swing barrier, which means it is for ease of usage and not intended to fully restrict people. Two important features exist here; firstly, this is a sign normally found on the public highway, which means 'No Entry'; secondly, this is a manner in which to direct the flow of people within the library itself. No-one can or should enter via this point. A library is full of books, which are by default full of words, but a visual cue is being used by the library as a means to inform people of what it expects from them, and with cues that do not necessarily hold any meaning for the younger generation who are not legally old enough to drive, and will therefore not be familiar with the Highway Code. Red, of course, signals stop where traffic lights are concerned, and small children may be aware of this; but to use visual cues in a place that deals primarily in books does indicate something about society; maybe society considers that visual cues, and the more recognisable ones that are inherent in the daily lives of people, have more sway than the mere presence of words. By the use of traffic signs, there is a part of society that is being excluded in this use of instructional visual signs, namely those that are not of the age to understand what the Highway Code signs are supposed to mean. The use of traffic signs is also relevant when considered in the way in which the library signs themselves are acting to direct the people to follow a set route both in and out of the library itself; the public highway has been in a sense brought in to the building and the same signs that a motorist would obey are in effect being used to ensure compliance within a structure, because of the lawfulness that they enforce on the public highway itself; this makes them an ideal and forceful means of shepherding society in a set manner, and in a way that they might not be immediately aware of. The discourse of the Highway Code is shown here to be as effective indoors as it is outdoors.

The way in

Directing the flow: the use of yet another Highway Code symbol is found at the entry point in to the library area of the Kirkwall Library. Familiarity with the Highway Code has already been touched upon above, so this photo will also focus on the 'No mobile phones' sign. The barrier for entrance in to the library is obvious by the white arrow on a blue background, which normally stands for 'One Way'; not only does this show the way in to the area, but also indicates from the outset that the premises expect people to follow one route only, because 'One Way' means 'one way' by default. Maybe this is working at the level of instructing users of the library that they will comply with following a set route once inside the library area, since they have been subconsciously programmed to by the very visual cue of the sign recognised by the consciousness before they even enter. This can ensure that there are no crowd problems within the building because the flow of human traffic is in theory only going one way; and nobody will collide with anybody on the way in or out because these signs ensure this does not occur. The 'No mobile phones' visual cue is obviously not seen to be as familiar to people, because it has the words beneath the symbol of the mobile phone; maybe this is in case it is mistaken for another object such as a calculator. However, in theory, an image of a mobile phone will be more instantly recognisable to a minor than a Highway Code sign will be, but apparently society does not deem this to be the case, and have therefore opted, in this instance, to use road sign symbols in the knowledge that minors will comprehend them, even though they do not drive, but may own a mobile phone, and therefore not need to be informed in words as to what the latter symbol indicates. It may be the case that the Highway Code signs have been in existence for longer than the mobile phone and as such it is expected that everybody is able to have acquired a familiarity with those particular signs, and that in the future as new technology appears, only the signs relating to them will have written words for clarification and that the mobile phone signs and so forth will no longer require a written explanation.

Enter

Door handles, a thing of the past? This item is a press-pad which allows for access in to the public library in Kirkwall. There are no handles on the doors, so there is no other way in which to gain access other than by the use of the pad itself. Society, or more specifically, the immediate members of society that dwell in the vicinity of the library, are well aware of the function of this object. Not all people in society understand this concept; on many occasions there have been Europeans looking at the doors attempting to work out how to get inside the building, but this does not mean that these objects cannot be found within their own countries, it just means that people expect to find a door handle when looking for access and that they are still not fully accustomed to searching for a press-pad. The word 'Open' can be seen, but the word press is represented by a single remaining letter 'P', indicating heavy usage of the pad. The fact that there is a symbol depicting a disabled person, not necessarily a person in a wheelchair, indicates that this may be specifically aimed at disabled people. However, since there is no other means whereby to gain access, the symbol of the disabled person is slightly misleading to everyone concerned, because this is by default the 'door handle'.

Ordering the queue

Forming a queue: many establishments direct people where to stand without having to communicate in the manner of speech or written signs. The moveable barriers, seen above, can be found in many establishments, and serve as a means of informing people where they should line up for certain purposes. Due to security restrictions, other barriers of a similar nature could not be photographed, however, some barriers are deliberately set-up in a manner that ensures that people within a premises follow the barrier around, and so the queue of people from the front to the back can be controlled; with many such barriers not allowing space for people in the queue to bypass each other either forwards or backwards, as found in Post Offices and banks. The barriers that are used are normally similar to the above and they are not very solid but in fact very flimsy and could, if desired, be moved by anybody, but nobody does move them and the authority of the person that placed them remains upheld by those people using the services of the establishment. The barriers, in the photo above, really do not require to be placed where they are, because there is a counter that people will approach in order to do their business, and this is obvious when the building is entered; however, the main function they serve is to ensure that people do not crowd the counter, at specific points that require a certain degree of privacy between staff and customer, and that they remain in politely formed queues until they come to the front of the queue themselves.

The pane

The divider pane of Perspex. A pane of see-through material, glass, Perspex, is normally considered to be for the pure purpose of visual access. The pane above, however, is a communication tool, as well as for visual purposes. Holes in a piece of see-through material, are known to society as areas whereby communication can go back and forth. Some such pieces of communicating Perspex designs have a few holes which are set further up the pane, but people still endeavour to get close to where the holes are in order to speak to the person behind; it is not viewed as odd, by society, that holes have been bored in to a piece of Perspex in order to allow a degree of communication and closeness to the person on the other side. This is also an indication of a certain degree of protection for the person behind the pane, and as such separates them from the people on the other side whilst also giving them a more authoritative status.

Time pieces

This was an arranged photo, for good reason; the fact that a jeweller's would not permit a photograph within any premises. Time pieces are used so that society knows what time it is, but to what end? Time is only there for one purpose, and that is to order society. Many households will have at least 3 of the 4 items in the photo; an alarm clock, a wall clock, a wrist watch, but possibly not a stopwatch. Not all societies are governed by time, generally people in African tribes do not necessarily have time pieces, but go about their daily activities as the sun comes up and cease them when the sun goes down. To highlight further the fact that society is governed by time, when British Summer Time and Greenwich Meantime occur, everybody alters their clocks so that everyone is in sync with everyone else where time is concerned. If a family were living in isolation, there would be no need for this, since time is relative, however some time piece may still be found in their abode. It is not necessary to know what the time is, since this is irrelevant; it is only necessary to know the time, if a person is ordered and following a set time pattern, for example, they must be somewhere at a set time. Time is not governed by individuals, but by people in authority. Highlighting further, if two watches are out of sync with one another, there exists the need for the two to be put back in to sync even if it is only by a few minutes, which in theory would not make the slightest difference; but society likes to be in sync with one another to the degree of being accurate to within seconds on their time pieces.

Timetable

The bus timetable, a simple enough item. Society believes that it is in order to permit the reader to know what time the bus will arrive, and it also gives an indication that the bus will pass, or stop, at the point at which the timetable is found. It also serves the purpose of informing people to be at a set point at a set time, should they wish to take the public transport on offer, which in reality could be seen as its ultimate purpose. The timetable is authoritative and non-negotiable, and society is very aware of this fact.

Speedometer

The speedometer, what is its function? A speedometer is supposedly there to inform you of what speed you are doing; this theory is fine initially, but it is not the case, unless it relates to a racing car driver. The speedometer, within society, is there for one purpose alone, and that purpose is to inform the driver of how fast they should not be going, not how fast they are going. If there were no speed limits, or it was an area, such as the desert, there would be no purpose in knowing what speed the speedometer registered, as long as the motorist had full control of the vehicle. When a motorist drives along they are constantly monitoring not how fast they are going, but rather whether they are going too fast, and the two are complete opposites. The speedometer is there in order to control society, and not for the purpose of registering the speed being done by the driver. At every maximum speed sign along the road that a driver encounters, the motorist will check that they are in compliance with society's rules, and will adjust their speed accordingly if they are going too fast, but seldom will a driver speed up if they are not going as fast as they are permitted to within any particular area. The speedometer relies on the driver being an honest and responsible member of society, because speed limits in every location cannot be monitored at every hour in throughout the day; there is the fear of those in authority taking action against a road user that does not comply with speed limits, so this could also place the speedometer in to the realm of those in authority being ever present within a vehicle that is being driven, and the anxiety of breaking society's rules and therefore being forced to adhere to those very rules is what the speedometer really symbolises.

The seemingly unwritten rules that society follows.

The following images will show scenes of everyday items, which you may or may not have considered before. They will show how seemingly ordinary everyday items, and areas, that we come across, have unwritten rules, or instructions, that society appear to be governed by even when there is no-one of authority around to enforce those rules.

Parking space

A line of garages indicate that this is probably a housing area, and since they are all uniform in build, design and colour, they have probably been constructed by the same person or organisation. The tracks in the snow show that they have been used for the purpose that they were built, which is to store a car/private vehicle. A garage can be used for many purposes, but the mere fact that a building is considered, or termed, a garage tends to convey the instruction to people that they should store their car in it; this is an unvoiced instruction that society seems to conform by.

Delineation of areas.

This photo shows how society is regulated by the rules of boundaries, even if there is no-one around to enforce them. A lone person walks on the pavement which is the designated area for a pedestrian, whilst the cars are parked at the side of the road which is the area that is likewise designated for vehicles. The boundary walls to the houses, lining either side of the road, can also be seen to be stretching as far as the eye can see.

What can we learn

A weird-angled shot, and a motorist decided to speed up in the slush when seeing me close to the road trying to get this, so I got a soaking, and was not very amused. But I wanted this photograph because it says a lot about society. The raised sections on either side of the road, we know as pavements, and they are primarily for pedestrians; the road is for vehicles; and the two remain separate. The fence indicates an area which is out of bounds to the general public, and is only accessible to those that have permission to be there. The street lights indicate that the area is made safe for society at night. The sign shows a person where they are in the area. The markings on the road, or roads, since there are two of them, allow for motorists to know when they should stop, and which side of the road they should be on; and the fact that there is a sewage system is evident by the drain in the road. The houses indicate that there is a community in close proximity, and all the houses are modern in style.

The road disappearing into the horizon

I just like this photo, which is why I put it in, even though it still informs us that the large slushy area is used by vehicles due to the tracks, thereby indicating that the road/area has a set function in society, even if there are no vehicles on it at any particular point in time it is still considered to be there for a specific reason.

Footsteps in the snow

This is an interesting sociological shot; the footsteps are constant in that they follow a direct route, but the path and grass are both hidden by snow. This indicates that society has been conditioned to walk on a pavement even if that pavement is hidden by snow and therefore indistinguishable from the grassy area around it. If society knows where the pavement is, they will still use it, even if they cannot see it; this is sort of amazing, and could only show up on a photo that has a snow base to it because the footprints can be seen to leave a trail of where the pedestrians chose to walk even though they were not instructed to walk along the snow-buried pathway, and could just as easily have walked on the snow covered grass areas.

Footsteps in the snow (opposite direction)

This is not such a good shot as the previous one as it shows pitted snow which could be regarded as footprints, showing that the camera can 'lie' even when there is no manipulation of the photo present.