Evaluation

The qualitative research project undertaken was to assess whether, and to what extent, society is being manipulated and ordered to behave in an expected manner by the very existence of objects found in everyday society.

The issues of validity and reliability, within the project, were not really a cause for concern, due mainly to the fact that images of people were not the focus of the project and therefore there was little room for manipulation of the subject matter, and the issue of the photographer directly influencing the subject did not arise. One photograph, however, Footsteps in the snow (opposite direction), taken from two differing viewpoints, did highlight the fact that manipulation of the source was possible, albeit accidentally in the instance being discussed. This meant that photographs taken after this point in time were carefully considered, where the framing of the object was concerned, in order not to have any substantial affect on the validity and therefore reliability of the image captured.

Validity and reliability were still an issue, because the selection process for the project, as a whole, meant taking certain elements from the cultural surround and this meant, by default, that other culturally important elements had to be excluded, mainly because the size of the project had to be kept to a minimal photographic collection. The selection process itself was based on objects that formed the larger part of signs within the culture being recorded, but not necessarily in the form of sign that society considers to be a sign, but in the form of objects which have a purpose of instructing society in some manner. The selection process also had to take into account what could be photographed; this became an issue where the photograph entitled Ordering the queue was concerned because this object is normally found in banks and post offices, both of which were off-limits due to security reasons, thus leaving only one possible source for the photograph, which is seen in the image mentioned.

Fortunately, it was possible to obtain a photograph of each of the elements that were selected for the project, all of which were selected by the process of seeking out any and every object that presented itself as a form of instruction; considering the photographs from a reflexive viewpoint, this seemed the wiser way in which to select subject matter for the project and did not appear to have any substantially detrimental affect to the overall project. It was also necessary to be vigilant during the analysing stage of the photographic content, because it was easy to overlook elements that did not readily present themselves in the images captured; this meant that the content analysis of the photographs also took on a semiotic approach as well, in order to get to the true meaning behind what was being photographed and not only to the stage of what society had been taught concerning the objects in the images. This in itself presented some interesting findings concerning the objects photographed and how society has been taught to view something which may have a different purpose to the one they are aware of.

Some of the areas which had little to no effect on the project are those of authenticity and illusion of the subject matter as it is framed for photography, apart from in the one instance already mentioned; similarly, the relationship of time does not really present itself as an issue in this particular study, although within several days of one of the photographs being taken, alterations were being made to the original subject matter by the Council, which means that in a sense the relationship of time should be taken into account when viewing the cultural content matter in the photographs presented, because time has already altered at least one of the sources and the image captured is no longer necessarily a true reflection of the object, although it still remains an accurate reflection of the cultural marker at that point in time.

It could be considered that the photographs merely represent cultural markers within society, and that they cannot be viewed in the same manner as an image of an individual whereby social inequities and ideologies are presented within captured images; however, there is an underlying emphasis on both of these aspects because ultimately it was society that placed the objects and that uses them for the control of the whole of society. In this manner, the objects within the photographs act in the same way as individuals within society, and therefore the issues and aspects of inequity and ideology are presented within the cultural use of the objects photographed. There are clear sources of control inherent in many of the images, and in images where no source of control exists, there appears to be an underlying ideology being voluntarily adhered to, as seen in the Footsteps in the snow (opposite direction) image.

Even though the photographic content is taken in isolation in many of the images, they are understood by society in isolation anyway, so this has not been considered a cause for concern and has not been deemed to affect the results in any way. All of the images can indeed be considered to be copies of reality, which may eventually take on the aspect of ‘myth’ if viewed in isolation to the culture itself, but this is highly improbable, because even without the narrative context, the photographs still maintain a degree of self-explanatory content which is enough, in most instances, to impart the knowledge required to form a substantially sound conclusion about the object within any given image; the narrative context merely allows the viewer of the photograph to explore the meaning, of the image presented, in more depth.

Although this is a very limited study, in terms of its scale, it has proven that society and individuals are ‘ordered’ by the very objects found around them in everyday life, but it has also shown that society itself maintains its structures and orderly society by the very use of these objects. On the whole, this has been a successful project which has explored the many ways, albeit subtle on occasion, in which society is ordered, in an attempt to maintain order where chaos might otherwise ensue.

Critical essay task B

Comment on Validity and Reliability in visual methods and on the Journalistic Image as Visual Sociology.


Validity and reliability in visual methods can be a cause for concern as the possibility of manipulation exists. Manipulation can be seen in the choice of images gathered which may be deliberately selected in order to give a preconceived view of the subject matter. In addition, images can also be photographed deliberately in a way that puts the subject within the image in either a positive or negative light, depending on whether the photographer wishes to depict one aspect or the other. This would mean that both the validity of the images and the reliability of their authenticity would be brought into question. If the selection of images within a visually-based study were selected for their merit and context then this would, by default, bring into question the validity of the study because it would no longer be an accurate measure of the item it was initially intended to measure, which would also bring into question the reliability of the study as well because reliability concerns the extent to which any form of study is valid. By deliberately choosing to frame a chosen aspect, as in the example above, this excludes all other possibilities which may well exist within the subject matter being studied and does not therefore allow for an overall accurate reflection of the subject as depicted within the visual data gathered, which would make it both invalid and certainly unreliable. Validity of a visual image is also affected by the process of external validity whereby the viewer is able to interpret the image correctly and not via a preconceived view which then also allows for misinterpretation which will diminish the validity of the image. (Prosser 1998).

Journalistic images need to be seen in context by the viewer in order to be interpreted correctly. Very often the image that the journalist presents to the viewer is surrounded by text which gives some context to the image. Where the image stands alone and there is no text to allow for its correct interpretation, it then falls to the reader/viewer of the image to be able to place the image within its correct social context by means of the use of prior learned knowledge of the subject matter. An image can only be interpreted correctly if prior knowledge of the subject is already known to the viewer, and therefore that is the only way in which any image can function at the level of visual sociology; the reader has to posses a sociological understanding of all the elements which combine to make the image, in order that visual sociology can be considered accurate to any degree, without this sociological understanding the probability of incorrect interpretation of the sociological facts being presented within a journalistic image may well occur. Sociological analysis of the journalistic image comprises of their evidentiary value, and their sociological meaning; both of these elements are more likely to be understood immediately and within their proper context if the viewer’s background knowledge of the subject is both up-to-date and accurate, otherwise the image could be considered not to have accurate sociological value at all. The knowledge of the subject and the correct interpretation and therefore understanding of the journalistic image is what gives a journalistic image its validity in the field of visual sociology. (Becker 1998: 92-94).


List of References:

Becker, H. S. (1998) ‘Visual sociology, documentary photography, and photojournalism: it’s (almost) all a matter of context.’ In Image-based research: a sourcebook for qualitative researchers. ed. by Prosser, J. London: Routledge: 84-96

Prosser, J. (ed.) (1998) Image-based research: a sourcebook for qualitative researchers. London: Routledge

Order after death.

The graveyard, past and present. The graveyard scene here shows how people are processed after death. The fact that these are obviously old gravestones indicates that the manner in which this practice has been carried out has not altered over the centuries. It could be considered that the graves are lined in rows purely to allow for people visiting the graves to be able to access the graves easier, or it could be so that any limited space is used to its fullest advantage. Other forces in society are at work here, however, because the exact location of burial is not generally chosen by either the deceased or by the deceased’s friends or family members. The local council has the final say as to where a deceased person is put to rest, which indicates that even the deceased are still being controlled by people in authority, and that they have no option but to comply with said request; it could be considered to be the ultimate proof of control or shepherding of the people by those with more authority.

The multiple functions of the chair.

Rows of chairs.



Row of chairs.

The chair, although considered as being an item on which to sit, has a variety of functions. Depending on how chairs are arranged, and in which setting they are placed, dictates their usage. The top photograph here, where the chairs are lined in row upon row in a cathedral show that they are not to be used for the purpose of leisure; they are all facing one direction, and are all relatively closely placed in relation to one another, with no room to stretch the legs for comfort. The chairs are also of a basic structure, wooden and with woven seats making them robust whilst at the same time depicting that they are intended for lots of use. The fact that they face forwards, in the manner that they do, allows the assumption to be drawn that the people, or group of people, using the chairs will be expected to pay attention to someone, or something at the front, and to sit still. The chairs in the photograph below that one, are lined up, and once again as with the chairs in the cathedral they are not connected to one another indicating that they can be moved; but the establishments both have enough authority over the people using the chairs that they will not be moved by default of this authoritarian power that the establishments enforce just by being the voice of authority within each of the two establishments, and not necessarily by word of mouth or any given order. The chairs in the second picture are also in a row, but placed up against a wall, and they also allow for leg-room so that people can relax on them; there is also no focal point ahead of them so that reinforces the idea of the purpose of the chairs, as does the soft comfortable seat and back of each chair.

Recycling containers.

Recycling.

Three separate recycling containers can be seen in this photograph; one for bottles, one for cans, and one for clothing. The size of the containers shows the community how much use they are expected to receive. Each one dictates that only a certain item is placed in to it, depending on its structure and colour, or on written or pictorial information on the container itself. The fact that the slots in which to place the recyclable items are found high up on the containers tends to indicate that they are targeted at the adult population and not at children; adults are being instructed to place items within the containers instead of placing them in their normal weekly bin collection. This shows a certain modicum of responsibility, because it is targeted at adults, and is also a manner in which to persuade people to use recycling areas in order to show others within the community that they are being responsible; this then becomes a self-perpetuating cycle, with control going on at a level that people may not be aware of, nor even be concerned about. Grouping containers together convinces people to consider recycling more than just one selected item from their rubbish, and is a way in which to ensure that more recycling goes on.

Follow the signs.

Male.



Female.



Disabled. This was the only available sign of this nature, but a flash could not be used due to flashback which is why it is slightly darker than it would have been had a similar sign been available for photographing but set in a different location where there was more natural light to assist the shot.



Disabled/male.

Disabled/female.

None of the five signs above indicate that the doors upon which they are found lead to toilet areas. Society has been taught, through intergenerational transmission, that each of these signs mean there is a toilet in the vicinity behind the door upon which the sign/symbol is found. The signs themselves are interesting, because they denote (from the top): male, female, disabled, disabled/female, disabled/male. However, this in itself is a problem, there is nothing to suggest that the ‘male’ sign is wearing trousers, or indeed clothing at all; likewise the ‘female’ sign suggests a dress or skirt, but there is nothing in society that prohibits a male wearing a skirt or dress, and men in many parts of the United Kingdom can be seen wearing the traditional dress in the form of a kilt, which to all intents and purposes when silhouetted would resemble the ‘female’ sign. The use of unisex clothing makes it unascertainable as to which sign is aimed at which gender, and the only thing which allows for people, from the very young to the elderly, to comprehend which each sign dictates, is the socialisation process within any given community. The ‘disabled’ sign, also has inherent problems, since it does not depict that only people in wheelchairs, which is the symbolism of the sign, are permitted to use the toilets found there, in fact it is for the disabled as a whole. The power that the signs emit is seen in the fact that an able-bodied person will seldom be seen entering a predominantly ‘disabled’ toilet facility but will be seen to go looking for the appropriate toilet to their gender, and one that has been set aside for the able-bodied. The last two signs, ‘disabled/male’ and ‘disabled/female’ also present their own problems since they do not indicate males and all disabled people, and females and all disabled people, respectively, but rather they are gender specific signs indicating that a toilet facility for the disabled can also be found at that location; this once again is a meaning that is only learnt through socialisation from a very young age. Genders can be seen to be the issue here, with the two genders being directed to using separate toilet facilities within any given building. One toilet is much the same as another but it is unlikely that anybody within society will break the cardinal rule by using a toilet facility specifically meant for the opposite gender. So, these signs show how authority and control of people is put in to place and followed through the learning process of socialisation, even though a toilet is a toilet, with the exception of the urinal, and could equally be used by either gender.

Gendered toilets.

The urinal, the male domain. [A male member of the Orkney College staff, who wishes to remain anonymous, was kind enough to take this necessary photograph for me]




Female/unisex toilet.




Disabled/unisex toilet.

Are toilets gender-specific? The urinal is most definitely an item made specifically with the male in mind. The purpose of which is presumably ease and speed of usage, because private households do not have urinals in them, in fact they are only to be found within public toilet facilities. Again, as with the signs on toilet doors, this is a process of socialisation which a male child must be introduced to in order to understand exactly what the purpose of the object is. This is the only toilet facility which is gender-specific, and yet there is no reason to have a gender-specific toilet because males are capable of using the ‘unisex’ toilet which they do for the majority of the day. The female/unisex toilet in the second and third photograph, found within both male and female toilet facilities can be used by both genders. The last photograph shows a toilet facility which is not only aimed at both genders but also at the disabled. The blue container which is used for the disposal of sanitary towels is very gender-specific, and once again something which is learnt through the process of intergenerational transmission. Each toilet facility shown indicates that at some level toilets can be used by both genders even if they are found within areas that have been specifically set aside for the use of a sole gender, however, the urinal is not a unisex item, and is therefore aimed solely at the male gender. Authorities and establishments ensure that the genders remain separate and make use of the facilities that have been set in place specifically for their own gender, by the use of door signs which direct the separate genders to a specific location, and further, by the installation of the urinal which can by default not be used by the female gender. The disabled are further controlled, in that they can only make use of a limited number of toilet facilities that they will not necessarily find at the same location as toilets for the able-bodied, which means that they have to go looking for a toilet that has been adapted specifically with them in mind; in a way, it could be considered that the disabled are being segregated to a greater degree, in this sense, than the segregation found between the male and female in this instance.